<chapter title="Introduction">

\Mathics---to be pronounced like "Mathematics" without the "emat"---is a general-purpose computer algebra system (CAS). It is meant to be a free, open-source alternative to \Mathematica. It is free both as in "free beer" and as in "freedom". There are various online mirrors running \Mathics but it is also possible to run \Mathics locally. A list of mirrors can be found at the \Mathics homepage, <url>https://mathics.org</url>.

The programming language of \Mathics is meant to resemble \Wolfram\'s famous \Mathematica as much as possible. However, \Mathics is in no way affiliated or supported by \Wolfram. \Mathics will probably never have the power to compete with \Mathematica in industrial applications; yet, it might be an interesting alternative for educational purposes.

For implementation details see
<url>https://github.com/mathics/Mathics/wiki</url>.

<section title="Why yet another CAS?">
\Mathematica is great, but it has one big disadvantage: It is not free. On the one hand, people might not be able or willing to pay hundreds of dollars for it; on the other hand, they would still not be able to see what\'s going on "inside" the program to understand their computations better. That\'s what free software is for!

\Mathics aims at combining the best of both worlds: the beauty of \Mathematica backed by a free, extensible Python core which includes a rich set of Python tools numeric computation, <url>https://numpy.org/numpy</url>, and symbolic mathematics, <url>https://sympy.org</url>.

Of course, there are drawbacks to the \Mathematica language, despite all its beauty. It does not really provide object orientation and especially encapsulation, which might be crucial for big software projects. Nevertheless, \Wolfram still managed to create their amazing <em>Wolfram|Alpha</em> entirely with \Mathematica, so it can\'t be too bad!

However, it is not even the intention of \Mathics to be used in large-scale projects and calculations---at least not as the main framework---but rather as a tool for quick explorations and in educating people who might later switch to \Mathematica.
</section>

<section title="What does it offer?">
Some of the most important features of \Mathics are
<ul>
<li>a powerful functional programming language,
<li>a system driven by pattern matching and rules application,
<li>rationals, complex numbers, and arbitrary-precision arithmetic,
<li>lots of list and structure manipulation routines,
<li>an interactive graphical user interface right in the Web browser using MathML (apart from a command line interface),
<li>creation of graphics (e.g. plots) and display in the browser using SVG for 2D graphics and WebGL for 3D graphics,
<li>export of results to \LaTeX (using Asymptote for graphics),
<li>a very easy way of defining new functions in Python,
<li>an integrated documentation and testing system.
</ul>
</section>

<section title="What is missing?">
There are lots of ways in which \Mathics could still be improved.

Most notably, performance is still slow, so any serious usage in cutting-edge industry or research will fail, unfortunately. Although Cython can be used to speed up parts of \Mathics, more is needed to speed up pattern matching. Replacing recursion with iteration may help here.

Apart from performance issues, new features such as more functions in various mathematical fields like calculus, number theory, or graph theory are still to be added.

In the future we intend to make better use the the graphics available in the excellent packages:

<ul>
<li>sympy plotting,<url>https://docs.sympy.org/latest/modules/plotting.html</url>
<li>mathplotlib pyplot, <url>https://matplotlib.org/api/pyplot_api.html</url>, and
<li>networkx, <url>https://networkx.github.io/</url>
</ul>

</section>

<section title="Who is behind it?">
\Mathics was created by Jan Pöschk in 2011. From 2013 to about 2017 it had been maintained mostly by Angus Griffith and Ben Jones. Since then, a number of others have been people involved in \Mathics; the list can be found in the <con>AUTHORS.txt</con> file, <url>https://github.com/mathics/Mathics/blob/master/AUTHORS.txt</url>.

If you have any ideas on how to improve \Mathics or even want to help out yourself, please contact us!

\skip
Welcome to \Mathics, have fun!
</section>

</chapter>


<chapter title="Installation and Running">

\Mathics runs natively on a computer that has Python or PyPy 3.6 or later installed. Since \Mathics relies on <i>sympy</i> which in turn relies on <i>numpy</i>, you will need at least those installed.

Since installation may change, see <url>https://github.com/mathics/Mathics/wiki/Installing-and-Running</url> for the most recent instructions for installing from PyPI, source, or from <i>docker</i>.

</chapter>


<chapter title="Language Tutorials">

The following sections are introductions to the basic principles of the language of \Mathics. A few examples and functions are presented. Only their most common usages are listed; for a full description of a Symbols possible arguments, options, etc., see its entry in the Reference of Built-in Symbols.

However if you google for "Mathematica Tutorials" you will find easily dozens of other tutorials which are applicable. Be warned though that \Mathics does not yet offer the full range and features and capabilities of \Mathematica.

<section title="Basic calculations">
\Mathics can be used to calculate basic stuff:

>> 1 + 2
 = 3
To submit a command to \Mathics, press 'Shift+Return' in the Web interface or 'Return' in the console interface. The result will be printed in a new line below your query.

\Mathics understands all basic arithmetic operators and applies the usual operator precedence. Use parentheses when needed:
>> 1 - 2 * (3 + 5) / 4
 = -3
The multiplication can be omitted:
>> 1 - 2 (3 + 5) / 4
 = -3
>> 2 4
 = 8
Powers can be entered using '^':
>> 3 ^ 4
 = 81
Integer divisions yield rational numbers:
>> 6 / 4
 = 3 / 2
To convert the result to a floating point number, apply the function 'N':
>> N[6 / 4]
 = 1.5
As you can see, functions are applied using square braces '[' and ']', in contrast to the common notation of '(' and ')'. At first hand, this might seem strange, but this distinction between function application and precedence change is necessary to allow some general syntax structures, as you will see later.

\Mathics provides many common mathematical functions and constants, e.g.:
>> Log[E]
 = 1
>> Sin[Pi]
 = 0
>> Cos[0.5]
 = 0.877583
When entering floating point numbers in your query, \Mathics will perform a numerical evaluation and present a numerical result, pretty much like if you had applied 'N'.

Of course, \Mathics has complex numbers:
>> Sqrt[-4]
 = 2 I
>> I ^ 2
 = -1
>> (3 + 2 I) ^ 4
 = -119 + 120 I
>> (3 + 2 I) ^ (2.5 - I)
 = 43.663 + 8.28556 I
>> Tan[I + 0.5]
 = 0.195577 + 0.842966 I

'Abs' calculates absolute values:
>> Abs[-3]
 = 3
>> Abs[3 + 4 I]
 = 5

\Mathics can operate with pretty huge numbers:
>> 100!
 = 93326215443944152681699238856266700490715968264381621468592963895217599993229915608941463976156518286253697920827223758251185210916864000000000000000000000000
('!' denotes the factorial function.)
The precision of numerical evaluation can be set:
>> N[Pi, 100]
 = 3.141592653589793238462643383279502884197169399375105820974944592307816406286208998628034825342117068

Division by zero is forbidden:
>> 1 / 0
 : Infinite expression 1 / 0 encountered.
 = ComplexInfinity
Other expressions involving 'Infinity' are evaluated:
>> Infinity + 2 Infinity
 = Infinity
In contrast to combinatorial belief, '0^0' is undefined:
>> 0 ^ 0
 : Indeterminate expression 0 ^ 0 encountered.
 = Indeterminate

The result of the previous query to \Mathics can be accessed by '%':
>> 3 + 4
 = 7
>> % ^ 2
 = 49
</section>

<section title="Symbols and Assignments">
Symbols need not be declared in \Mathics, they can just be entered and remain variable:
>> x
 = x
Basic simplifications are performed:
>> x + 2 x
 = 3 x
Symbols can have any name that consists of characters and digits:
>> iAm1Symbol ^ 2
 = iAm1Symbol ^ 2

You can assign values to symbols:
>> a = 2
 = 2
>> a ^ 3
 = 8
>> a = 4
 = 4
>> a ^ 3
 = 64
Assigning a value returns that value. If you want to suppress the output of any result, add a ';' to the end of your query:
>> a = 4;

Values can be copied from one variable to another:
>> b = a;
Now changing 'a' does not affect 'b':
>> a = 3;
>> b
 = 4
Such a dependency can be achieved by using "delayed assignment" with the ':=' operator (which does not return anything, as the right side is not even evaluated):
>> b := a ^ 2
>> b
 = 9
>> a = 5;
>> b
 = 25
</section>


<section title="Comparisons and Boolean Logic">
Values can be compared for equality using the operator '==':
>> 3 == 3
 = True
>> 3 == 4
 = False
The special symbols 'True' and 'False' are used to denote truth values. Naturally, there are inequality comparisons as well:
>> 3 > 4
 = False
Inequalities can be chained:
>> 3 < 4 >= 2 != 1
 = True

Truth values can be negated using '!' (logical <em>not</em>) and combined using '&&' (logical <em>and</em>) and '||' (logical <em>or</em>):
>> !True
 = False
>> !False
 = True
>> 3 < 4 && 6 > 5
 = True
'&&' has higher precedence than '||', i.e. it binds stronger:
>> True && True || False && False
 = True
>> True && (True || False) && False
 = False
</section>

<section title="Strings">
Strings can be entered with '"' as delimiters:
>> "Hello world!"
 = Hello world!
As you can see, quotation marks are not printed in the output by default. This can be changed by using 'InputForm':
>> InputForm["Hello world!"]
 = "Hello world!"

Strings can be joined using '<>':
>> "Hello" <> " " <> "world!"
 = Hello world!
Numbers cannot be joined to strings:
>> "Debian" <> 6
 : String expected.
 = Debian <> 6
They have to be converted to strings using 'ToString' first:
>> "Debian" <> ToString[6]
 = Debian6
</section>

<section title="Lists">
Lists can be entered in \Mathics with curly braces '{' and '}':
>> mylist = {a, b, c, d}
 = {a, b, c, d}
There are various functions for constructing lists:
>> Range[5]
 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
>> Array[f, 4]
 = {f[1], f[2], f[3], f[4]}
>> ConstantArray[x, 4]
 = {x, x, x, x}
>> Table[n ^ 2, {n, 2, 5}]
 = {4, 9, 16, 25}

The number of elements of a list can be determined with 'Length':
>> Length[mylist]
 = 4
Elements can be extracted using double square braces:
>> mylist[[3]]
 = c
Negative indices count from the end:
>> mylist[[-3]]
 = b

Lists can be nested:
>> mymatrix = {{1, 2}, {3, 4}, {5, 6}};
There are alternate forms to display lists:
>> TableForm[mymatrix]
 = 1   2
 .
 . 3   4
 .
 . 5   6
>> MatrixForm[mymatrix]
 = 1   2
 .
 . 3   4
 .
 . 5   6

There are various ways of extracting elements from a list:
>> mymatrix[[2, 1]]
 = 3
>> mymatrix[[;;, 2]]
 = {2, 4, 6}
>> Take[mylist, 3]
 = {a, b, c}
>> Take[mylist, -2]
 = {c, d}
>> Drop[mylist, 2]
 = {c, d}
>> First[mymatrix]
 = {1, 2}
>> Last[mylist]
 = d
>> Most[mylist]
 = {a, b, c}
>> Rest[mylist]
 = {b, c, d}

Lists can be used to assign values to multiple variables at once:
>> {a, b} = {1, 2};
>> a
 = 1
>> b
 = 2

Many operations, like addition and multiplication, "thread" over lists, i.e. lists are combined element-wise:
>> {1, 2, 3} + {4, 5, 6}
 = {5, 7, 9}
>> {1, 2, 3} * {4, 5, 6}
 = {4, 10, 18}
It is an error to combine lists with unequal lengths:
>> {1, 2} + {4, 5, 6}
 : Objects of unequal length cannot be combined.
 = {1, 2} + {4, 5, 6}
</section>

<section title="The Structure of Things">
Every expression in \Mathics is built upon the same principle: it consists of a <em>head</em> and an arbitrary number of <em>children</em>, unless it is an <em>atom</em>, i.e. it can not be subdivided any further. To put it another way: everything is a function call. This can be best seen when displaying expressions in their "full form":
>> FullForm[a + b + c]
 = Plus[a, b, c]
Nested calculations are nested function calls:
>> FullForm[a + b * (c + d)]
 = Plus[a, Times[b, Plus[c, d]]]
Even lists are function calls of the function 'List':
>> FullForm[{1, 2, 3}]
 = List[1, 2, 3]

The head of an expression can be determined with 'Head':
>> Head[a + b + c]
 = Plus
The children of an expression can be accessed like list elements:
>> (a + b + c)[[2]]
 = b
The head is the 0th element:
>> (a + b + c)[[0]]
 = Plus

The head of an expression can be exchanged using the function 'Apply':
>> Apply[g, f[x, y]]
 = g[x, y]
>> Apply[Plus, a * b * c]
 = a + b + c
'Apply' can be written using the operator '@@':
>> Times @@ {1, 2, 3, 4}
 = 24
(This exchanges the head 'List' of '{1, 2, 3, 4}' with 'Times', and then the expression 'Times[1, 2, 3, 4]' is evaluated, yielding 24.)
'Apply' can also be applied on a certain <em>level</em> of an expression:
>> Apply[f, {{1, 2}, {3, 4}}, {1}]
 = {f[1, 2], f[3, 4]}
Or even on a range of levels:
>> Apply[f, {{1, 2}, {3, 4}}, {0, 2}]
 = f[f[1, 2], f[3, 4]]
'Apply' is similar to 'Map' ('/@'):
>> Map[f, {1, 2, 3, 4}]
 = {f[1], f[2], f[3], f[4]}
>> f /@ {{1, 2}, {3, 4}}
 = {f[{1, 2}], f[{3, 4}]}

The atoms of \Mathics are numbers, symbols, and strings. 'AtomQ' tests whether an expression is an atom:
>> AtomQ[5]
 = True
>> AtomQ[a + b]
 = False
The full form of rational and complex numbers looks like they were compound expressions:
>> FullForm[3 / 5]
 = Rational[3, 5]
>> FullForm[3 + 4 I]
 = Complex[3, 4]
However, they are still atoms, thus unaffected by applying functions, for instance:
>> f @@ Complex[3, 4]
 = 3 + 4 I
Nevertheless, every atom has a head:
>> Head /@ {1, 1/2, 2.0, I, "a string", x}
 = {Integer, Rational, Real, Complex, String, Symbol}

The operator '===' tests whether two expressions are the same on a structural level:
>> 3 === 3
 = True
>> 3 == 3.0
 = True
But
>> 3 === 3.0
 = False
because '3' (an 'Integer') and '3.0' (a 'Real') are structurally different.
</section>

<section title="Functions and Patterns">
Functions can be defined in the following way:
>> f[x_] := x ^ 2
This tells \Mathics to replace every occurrence of 'f' with one (arbitrary) parameter 'x' with 'x ^ 2'.
>> f[3]
 = 9
>> f[a]
 = a ^ 2
The definition of 'f' does not specify anything for two parameters, so any such call will stay unevaluated:
>> f[1, 2]
 = f[1, 2]

In fact, <em>functions</em> in \Mathics are just one aspect of <em>patterns</em>: 'f[x_]' is a pattern that <em>matches</em> expressions like 'f[3]' and 'f[a]'. The following patterns are available:
<dl>
  <dt>'_' or 'Blank[]'
  <dd>matches one expression.
  <dt>'Pattern[$x$, $p$]'
  <dd>matches the pattern $p$ and stores the value in $x$.
  <dt>'$x$_' or 'Pattern[$x$, Blank[]]'
  <dd>matches one expression and stores it in $x$.
  <dt>'__' or 'BlankSequence[]'
  <dd>matches a sequence of one or more expressions.
  <dt>'___' or 'BlankNullSequence[]'
  <dd>matches a sequence of zero or more expressions.
  <dt>'_$h$' or 'Blank[$h$]'
  <dd>matches one expression with head $h$.
  <dt>'$x$_$h$' or 'Pattern[$x$, Blank[$h$]]'
  <dd>matches one expression with head $h$ and stores it in $x$.
  <dt>'$p$ | $q$' or 'Alternatives[$p$, $q$]'
  <dd>matches either pattern $p$ or $q$.
  <dt>'$p$ ? $t$' or 'PatternTest[$p$, $t$]'
  <dd>matches $p$ if the test '$t$[$p$]' yields 'True'.
  <dt>'$p$ /; $c$' or 'Condition[$p$, $c$]'
  <dd>matches $p$ if condition $c$ holds.
  <dt>'Verbatim[$p$]'
  <dd>matches an expression that equals $p$, without regarding patterns inside $p$.
</dl>

As before, patterns can be used to define functions:
>> g[s___] := Plus[s] ^ 2
>> g[1, 2, 3]
 = 36

'MatchQ[$e$, $p$]' tests whether $e$ matches $p$:
>> MatchQ[a + b, x_ + y_]
 = True
>> MatchQ[6, _Integer]
 = True

'ReplaceAll' ('/.') replaces all occurrences of a pattern in an expression using a 'Rule' given by '->':
>> {2, "a", 3, 2.5, "b", c} /. x_Integer -> x ^ 2
 = {4, a, 9, 2.5, b, c}
You can also specify a list of rules:
>> {2, "a", 3, 2.5, "b", c} /. {x_Integer -> x ^ 2.0, y_String -> 10}
 = {4., 10, 9., 2.5, 10, c}
'ReplaceRepeated' ('//.') applies a set of rules repeatedly, until the expression doesn\'t change anymore:
>> {2, "a", 3, 2.5, "b", c} //. {x_Integer -> x ^ 2.0, y_String -> 10}
 = {4., 100., 9., 2.5, 100., c}

There is a "delayed" version of 'Rule' which can be specified by ':>' (similar to the relation of ':=' to '='):
>> a :> 1 + 2
 = a :> 1 + 2
>> a -> 1 + 2
 = a -> 3
This is useful when the right side of a rule should not be evaluated immediately (before matching):
>> {1, 2} /. x_Integer -> N[x]
 = {1, 2}
Here, 'N' is applied to 'x' before the actual matching, simply yielding 'x'. With a delayed rule this can be avoided:
>> {1, 2} /. x_Integer :> N[x]
 = {1., 2.}

While 'ReplaceAll' and 'ReplaceRepeated' simply take the first possible match into account, 'ReplaceList' returns a list of all possible matches. This can be used to get all subsequences of a list, for instance:
>> ReplaceList[{a, b, c}, {___, x__, ___} -> {x}]
 = {{a}, {a, b}, {a, b, c}, {b}, {b, c}, {c}}
'ReplaceAll' would just return the first expression:
>> ReplaceAll[{a, b, c}, {___, x__, ___} -> {x}]
 = {a}

In addition to defining functions as rules for certain patterns, there are <em>pure</em> functions that can be defined using the '&' postfix operator, where everything before it is treated as the function body and '#' can be used as argument placeholder:
>> h = # ^ 2 &;
>> h[3]
 = 9
Multiple arguments can simply be indexed:
>> sum = #1 + #2 &;
>> sum[4, 6]
 = 10
It is also possible to name arguments using 'Function':
>> prod = Function[{x, y}, x * y];
>> prod[4, 6]
 = 24
Pure functions are very handy when functions are used only locally, e.g., when combined with operators like 'Map':
>> # ^ 2 & /@ Range[5]
 = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25}
Sort according to the second part of a list:
>> Sort[{{x, 10}, {y, 2}, {z, 5}}, #1[[2]] < #2[[2]] &]
 = {{y, 2}, {z, 5}, {x, 10}}

Functions can be applied using prefix or postfix notation, in addition to using '[]':
>> h @ 3
 = 9
>> 3 // h
 = 9
</section>

<section title="Control Statements">
Like most programming languages, \Mathics has common control statements for conditions, loops, etc.:
<dl>
<dt>'If[$cond$, $pos$, $neg$]'
  <dd>returns $pos$ if $cond$ evaluates to 'True', and $neg$ if it evaluates to 'False'.
<dt>'Which[$cond1$, $expr1$, $cond2$, $expr2$, ...]'
        <dd>yields $expr1$ if $cond1$ evaluates to 'True', $expr2$ if $cond2$ evaluates to 'True', etc.
<dt>'Do[$expr$, {$i$, $max$}]'
  <dd>evaluates $expr$ $max$ times, substituting $i$ in $expr$ with values from 1 to $max$.
<dt>'For[$start$, $test$, $incr$, $body$]'
        <dd>evaluates $start$, and then iteratively $body$ and $incr$ as long as $test$ evaluates to 'True'.
<dt>'While[$test$, $body$]'
        <dd>evaluates $body$ as long as $test$ evaluates to 'True'.
<dt>'Nest[$f$, $expr$, $n$]'
        <dd>returns an expression with $f$ applied $n$ times to $expr$.
<dt>'NestWhile[$f$, $expr$, $test$]'
        <dd>applies a function $f$ repeatedly on an expression $expr$, until
        applying $test$ on the result no longer yields 'True'.
<dt>'FixedPoint[$f$, $expr$]'
        <dd>starting with $expr$, repeatedly applies $f$ until the result no longer changes.
</dl>

>> If[2 < 3, a, b]
 = a
>> x = 3; Which[x < 2, a, x > 4, b, x < 5, c]
 = c

Compound statements can be entered with ';'. The result of a compound expression is its last part or 'Null' if it ends with a ';'.
>> 1; 2; 3
 = 3
>> 1; 2; 3;

Inside 'For', 'While', and 'Do' loops, 'Break[]' exits the loop and 'Continue[]' continues to the next iteration.
>> For[i = 1, i <= 5, i++, If[i == 4, Break[]]; Print[i]]
 | 1
 | 2
 | 3
</section>

<section title="Scoping">
By default, all symbols are "global" in \Mathics, i.e. they can be read and written in any part of your program.
However, sometimes "local" variables are needed in order not to disturb the global namespace. \Mathics provides two ways to support this:
<ul>
<li><em>lexical scoping</em> by 'Module', and
<li><em>dynamic scoping</em> by 'Block'.
</ul>
<dl>
<dt>'Module[{$vars$}, $expr$]'
        <dd>localizes variables by giving them a temporary name of the form
    'name$number', where number is the current value of '$ModuleNumber'. Each time a module
    is evaluated, '$ModuleNumber' is incremented.
<dt>'Block[{$vars$}, $expr$]'
        <dd>temporarily stores the definitions of certain variables, evaluates
        $expr$ with reset values and restores the original definitions afterwards.
</dl>

Both scoping constructs shield inner variables from affecting outer ones:
>> t = 3;
>> Module[{t}, t = 2]
 = 2
>> Block[{t}, t = 2]
 = 2
>> t
 = 3

'Module' creates new variables:
>> y = x ^ 3;
>> Module[{x = 2}, x * y]
 = 2 x ^ 3
'Block' does not:
>> Block[{x = 2}, x * y]
 = 16
Thus, 'Block' can be used to temporarily assign a value to a variable:
>> expr = x ^ 2 + x;
>> Block[{x = 3}, expr]
 = 12
>> x
 = x

'Block' can also be used to temporarily change the value of system parameters:
>> Block[{$RecursionLimit = 30}, x = 2 x]
 : Recursion depth of 30 exceeded.
 = $Aborted

>> f[x_] := f[x + 1]; Block[{$IterationLimit = 30}, f[1]]
 : Iteration limit of 30 exceeded.
 = $Aborted

It is common to use scoping constructs for function definitions with local variables:
>> fac[n_] := Module[{k, p}, p = 1; For[k = 1, k <= n, ++k, p *= k]; p]
>> fac[10]
 = 3628800
>> 10!
 = 3628800
</section>

<section title="Formatting Output">
The way results are formatted for output in \Mathics is rather sophisticated, as compatibility to the way \Mathematica does things is one of the design goals. It can be summed up in the following procedure:
<ol>
<li>The result of the query is calculated.
<li>The result is stored in 'Out' (which '%' is a shortcut for).
<li>Any 'Format' rules for the desired output form are applied to the result. In the console version of \Mathics, the result is formatted as 'OutputForm'; 'MathMLForm' for the 'StandardForm' is used in the interactive Web version; and 'TeXForm' for the 'StandardForm' is used to generate the \LaTeX version of this documentation.
<li>'MakeBoxes' is applied to the formatted result, again given either 'OutputForm', 'MathMLForm', or 'TeXForm' depending on the execution context of \Mathics. This yields a new expression consisting of "box constructs".
<li>The boxes are turned into an ordinary string and displayed in the console, sent to the browser, or written to the documentation \LaTeX file.
</ol>
As a consequence, there are various ways to implement your own formatting strategy for custom objects.

You can specify how a symbol shall be formatted by assigning values to 'Format':
>> Format[x] = "y";
>> x
 = y
This will apply to 'MathMLForm', 'OutputForm', 'StandardForm', 'TeXForm', and 'TraditionalForm'.
>> x // InputForm
 = x
You can specify a specific form in the assignment to 'Format':
>> Format[x, TeXForm] = "z";
>> x // TeXForm
 = \text{z}

Special formats might not be very relevant for individual symbols, but rather for custom functions (objects):
>> Format[r[args___]] = "<an r object>";
>> r[1, 2, 3]
 = <an r object>
You can use several helper functions to format expressions:
<dl>
<dt>'Infix[$expr$, $op$]'
  <dd>formats the arguments of $expr$ with infix operator $op$.
<dt>'Prefix[$expr$, $op$]'
  <dd>formats the argument of $expr$ with prefix operator $op$.
<dt>'Postfix[$expr$, $op$]'
  <dd>formats the argument of $expr$ with postfix operator $op$.
<dt>'StringForm[$form$, $arg1$, $arg2$, ...]'
  <dd>formats arguments using a format string.
</dl>
>> Format[r[args___]] = Infix[{args}, "~"];
>> r[1, 2, 3]
 = 1 ~ 2 ~ 3
>> StringForm["`1` and `2`", n, m]
 = n and m

There are several methods to display expressions in 2-D:
<dl>
<dt>'Row[{...}]'
  <dd>displays expressions in a row.
<dt>'Grid[{{...}}]'
  <dd>displays a matrix in two-dimensional form.
<dt>'Subscript[$expr$, $i1$, $i2$, ...]'
  <dd>displays $expr$ with subscript indices $i1$, $i2$, ...
<dt>'Superscript[$expr$, $exp$]'
  <dd>displays $expr$ with superscript (exponent) $exp$.
</dl>
>> Grid[{{a, b}, {c, d}}]
 = a   b
 .
 . c   d
>> Subscript[a, 1, 2] // TeXForm
 = a_{1,2}

If you want even more low-level control of how expressions are displayed, you can override 'MakeBoxes':
>> MakeBoxes[b, StandardForm] = "c";
>> b
 = b
## this will be displayed as c in the browser and LaTeX documentation
This will even apply to 'TeXForm', because 'TeXForm' implies 'StandardForm':
>> b // TeXForm
 = c
Except some other form is applied first:
>> b // OutputForm // TeXForm
 = b
'MakeBoxes' for another form:
>> MakeBoxes[b, TeXForm] = "d";
>> b // TeXForm
 = d
You can cause a much bigger mess by overriding 'MakeBoxes' than by sticking to 'Format', e.g. generate invalid XML:
>> MakeBoxes[c, MathMLForm] = "<not closed";
>> c // MathMLForm
 = <not closed
However, this will not affect formatting of expressions involving 'c':
>> c + 1 // MathMLForm
 = ...
That\'s because 'MathMLForm' will, when not overridden for a special case, call 'StandardForm' first.
'Format' will produce escaped output:
>> Format[d, MathMLForm] = "<not closed";
>> d // MathMLForm
 = ...
>> d + 1 // MathMLForm
 = ...

For instance, you can override 'MakeBoxes' to format lists in a different way:
>> MakeBoxes[{items___}, StandardForm] := RowBox[{"[", Sequence @@ Riffle[MakeBoxes /@ {items}, " "], "]"}]
>> {1, 2, 3}
 = {1, 2, 3}
#> {1, 2, 3} // TeXForm
 = \left[1 2 3\right]
However, this will not be accepted as input to \Mathics anymore:
>> [1 2 3]
 : Expression cannot begin with "[1 2 3]" (line 1 of "<test>").
>> Clear[MakeBoxes]
By the way, 'MakeBoxes' is the only built-in symbol that is not protected by default:
>> Attributes[MakeBoxes]
 = {HoldAllComplete}

'MakeBoxes' must return a valid box construct:
>> MakeBoxes[squared[args___], StandardForm] := squared[args] ^ 2
>> squared[1, 2]
 = squared[1, 2]
## different in LaTeX and MathML
X> squared[1, 2] // TeXForm
 : Power[squared[1, 2], 2] is not a valid box structure.
 =
The desired effect can be achieved in the following way:
>> MakeBoxes[squared[args___], StandardForm] := SuperscriptBox[RowBox[{MakeBoxes[squared], "[", RowBox[Riffle[MakeBoxes[#]& /@ {args}, ","]], "]"}], 2]
>> squared[1, 2]
 = squared[1, 2]
#> squared[1, 2] // TeXForm
 = \text{squared}\left[1,2\right]^2

You can view the box structure of a formatted expression using 'ToBoxes':
>> ToBoxes[m + n]
 = RowBox[{m, +, n}]
The list elements in this 'RowBox' are strings, though string delimiters are not shown in the default output form:
>> InputForm[%]
 = RowBox[{"m", "+", "n"}]
</section>

<section title="Graphics Introduction Examples">
Two-dimensional graphics can be created using the function 'Graphics' and a list of graphics primitives. For three-dimensional graphics see the following section. The following primitives are available:
<dl>
<dt>'Circle[{$x$, $y$}, $r$]'
  <dd>draws a circle.
<dt>'Disk[{$x$, $y$}, $r$]'
  <dd>draws a filled disk.
<dt>'Rectangle[{$x1$, $y1$}, {$x2$, $y2$}]'
  <dd>draws a filled rectangle.
<dt>'Polygon[{{$x1$, $y1$}, {$x2$, $y2$}, ...}]'
  <dd>draws a filled polygon.
<dt>'Line[{{$x1$, $y1$}, {$x2$, $y2$}, ...}]'
  <dd>draws a line.
<dt>'Text[$text$, {$x$, $y$}]'
  <dd>draws text in a graphics.
</dl>

>> Graphics[{Circle[{0, 0}, 1]}]
 = -Graphics-
>> Graphics[{Line[{{0, 0}, {0, 1}, {1, 1}, {1, -1}}], Rectangle[{0, 0}, {-1, -1}]}]
 = -Graphics-

Colors can be added in the list of graphics primitives to change the drawing color. The following ways to specify colors are supported:
<dl>
<dt>'RGBColor[$r$, $g$, $b$]'
  <dd>specifies a color using red, green, and blue.
<dt>'CMYKColor[$c$, $m$, $y$, $k$]'
  <dd>specifies a color using cyan, magenta, yellow, and black.
<dt>'Hue[$h$, $s$, $b$]'
  <dd>specifies a color using hue, saturation, and brightness.
<dt>'GrayLevel[$l$]'
  <dd>specifies a color using a gray level.
</dl>
All components range from 0 to 1. Each color function can be supplied with an additional argument specifying the desired opacity ("alpha") of the color. There are many predefined colors, such as 'Black', 'White', 'Red', 'Green', 'Blue', etc.

>> Graphics[{Red, Disk[]}]
 = -Graphics-
Table of hues:
>> Graphics[Table[{Hue[h, s], Disk[{12h, 8s}]}, {h, 0, 1, 1/6}, {s, 0, 1, 1/4}]]
 = -Graphics-

Colors can be mixed and altered using the following functions:
<dl>
<dt>'Blend[{$color1$, $color2$}, $ratio$]'
  <dd>mixes $color1$ and $color2$ with $ratio$, where a ratio of 0 returns $color1$ and a ratio of 1 returns $color2$.
<dt>'Lighter[$color$]'
  <dd>makes $color$ lighter (mixes it with 'White').
<dt>'Darker[$color$]'
  <dd>makes $color$ darker (mixes it with 'Black').
</dl>

>> Graphics[{Lighter[Red], Disk[]}]
 = -Graphics-

'Graphics' produces a 'GraphicsBox':
>> Head[ToBoxes[Graphics[{Circle[]}]]]
 = GraphicsBox
</section>

<section title="3D Graphics">
Three-dimensional graphics are created using the function 'Graphics3D' and a list of 3D primitives. The following primitives are supported so far:
<dl>
<dt>'Polygon[{{$x1$, $y1$, $z1$}, {$x2$, $y2$, $z3$}, ...}]'
  <dd>draws a filled polygon.
<dt>'Line[{{$x1$, $y1$, $z1$}, {$x2$, $y2$, $z3$}, ...}]'
  <dd>draws a line.
<dt>'Point[{$x1$, $y1$, $z1$}]'
  <dd>draws a point.
</dl>

>> Graphics3D[Polygon[{{0,0,0}, {0,1,1}, {1,0,0}}]]
 = -Graphics3D-

Colors can also be added to three-dimensional primitives.
>> Graphics3D[{Orange, Polygon[{{0,0,0}, {1,1,1}, {1,0,0}}]}, Axes->True]
 = -Graphics3D-

'Graphics3D' produces a 'Graphics3DBox':
>> Head[ToBoxes[Graphics3D[{Polygon[]}]]]
 = Graphics3DBox
</section>

<section title="Plotting Introduction Examples">
\Mathics can plot functions:
>> Plot[Sin[x], {x, 0, 2 Pi}]
 = -Graphics-
You can also plot multiple functions at once:
>> Plot[{Sin[x], Cos[x], x ^ 2}, {x, -1, 1}]
 = -Graphics-

Two-dimensional functions can be plotted using 'DensityPlot':
>> DensityPlot[x ^ 2 + 1 / y, {x, -1, 1}, {y, 1, 4}]
 = -Graphics-
You can use a custom coloring function:
>> DensityPlot[x ^ 2 + 1 / y, {x, -1, 1}, {y, 1, 4}, ColorFunction -> (Blend[{Red, Green, Blue}, #]&)]
 = -Graphics-
One problem with 'DensityPlot' is that it\'s still very slow, basically due to function evaluation being pretty slow in general---and 'DensityPlot' has to evaluate a lot of functions.

Three-dimensional plots are supported as well:
>> Plot3D[Exp[x] Cos[y], {x, -2, 1}, {y, -Pi, 2 Pi}]
 = -Graphics3D-
</section>


</chapter>



<chapter title="Examples">

<section title="Curve sketching">
Let\'s sketch the function
>> f[x_] := 4 x / (x ^ 2 + 3 x + 5)
The derivatives are
>> {f'[x], f''[x], f'''[x]} // Together
 = {-4 (-5 + x ^ 2) / (5 + 3 x + x ^ 2) ^ 2, 8 (-15 - 15 x + x ^ 3) / (5 + 3 x + x ^ 2) ^ 3, -24 (-20 - 60 x - 30 x ^ 2 + x ^ 4) / (5 + 3 x + x ^ 2) ^ 4}
To get the extreme values of 'f', compute the zeroes of the first derivatives:
>> extremes = Solve[f'[x] == 0, x]
 = {{x -> -Sqrt[5]}, {x -> Sqrt[5]}}
And test the second derivative:
>> f''[x] /. extremes // N
 = {1.65086, -0.064079}
Thus, there is a local maximum at 'x = Sqrt[5]' and a local minimum at 'x = -Sqrt[5]'.
Compute the inflection points numerically, chopping imaginary parts close to 0:
>> inflections = Solve[f''[x] == 0, x] // N // Chop
 = {{x -> -1.0852}, {x -> -3.21463}, {x -> 4.29983}}
Insert into the third derivative:
>> f'''[x] /. inflections
 = {-3.67683, 0.694905, 0.00671894}
Being different from 0, all three points are actual inflection points.
'f' is not defined where its denominator is 0:
>> Solve[Denominator[f[x]] == 0, x]
 = {{x -> -3 / 2 - I / 2 Sqrt[11]}, {x -> -3 / 2 + I / 2 Sqrt[11]}}
These are non-real numbers, consequently 'f' is defined on all real numbers.
The behaviour of 'f' at the boundaries of its definition:
>> Limit[f[x], x -> Infinity]
 = 0
>> Limit[f[x], x -> -Infinity]
 = 0
Finally, let\'s plot 'f':
>> Plot[f[x], {x, -8, 6}]
 = -Graphics-
</section>


<section title="Linear algebra">
Let\'s consider the matrix
>> A = {{1, 1, 0}, {1, 0, 1}, {0, 1, 1}};
>> MatrixForm[A]
 = 1   1   0
 .
 . 1   0   1
 .
 . 0   1   1

We can compute its eigenvalues and eigenvectors:
>> Eigenvalues[A]
 = {2, -1, 1}
>> Eigenvectors[A]
 = {{1, 1, 1}, {1, -2, 1}, {-1, 0, 1}}
This yields the diagonalization of 'A':
>> T = Transpose[Eigenvectors[A]]; MatrixForm[T]
 = 1   1    -1
 .
 . 1   -2   0
 .
 . 1   1    1
>> Inverse[T] . A . T // MatrixForm
 = 2   0    0
 .
 . 0   -1   0
 .
 . 0   0    1
>> % == DiagonalMatrix[Eigenvalues[A]]
 = True

We can solve linear systems:
>> LinearSolve[A, {1, 2, 3}]
 = {0, 1, 2}
>> A . %
 = {1, 2, 3}
In this case, the solution is unique:
>> NullSpace[A]
 = {}

Let\'s consider a singular matrix:
>> B = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}, {7, 8, 9}};
>> MatrixRank[B]
 = 2
>> s = LinearSolve[B, {1, 2, 3}]
 = {-1 / 3, 2 / 3, 0}
>> NullSpace[B]
 = {{1, -2, 1}}
>> B . (RandomInteger[100] * %[[1]] + s)
 = {1, 2, 3}
</section>


<section title="Dice">
Let\'s play with dice in this example. A 'Dice' object shall represent the outcome of a series of rolling a dice with six faces, e.g.:
>> Dice[1, 6, 4, 4]
 = Dice[1, 6, 4, 4]
Like in most games, the ordering of the individual throws does not matter. We can express this by making 'Dice' 'Orderless':
>> SetAttributes[Dice, Orderless]
>> Dice[1, 6, 4, 4]
 = Dice[1, 4, 4, 6]
A dice object shall be displayed as a rectangle with the given number of points in it, positioned like on a traditional dice:
>> Format[Dice[n_Integer?(1 <= # <= 6 &)]] := Block[{p = 0.2, r = 0.05}, Graphics[{EdgeForm[Black], White, Rectangle[], Black, EdgeForm[], If[OddQ[n], Disk[{0.5, 0.5}, r]], If[MemberQ[{2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{p, p}, r]], If[MemberQ[{2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{1 - p, 1 - p}, r]], If[MemberQ[{4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{p, 1 - p}, r]], If[MemberQ[{4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{1 - p, p}, r]], If[n === 6, {Disk[{p, 0.5}, r], Disk[{1 - p, 0.5}, r]}]}, ImageSize -> Tiny]]
>> Dice[1]
 = -Graphics-

#> Definition[Dice]
 = Attributes[Dice] = {Orderless}
 .
 . Format[Dice[n_Integer ? (1 <= #1 <= 6&)], MathMLForm] = Block[{p = 0.2, r = 0.05}, Graphics[{EdgeForm[Black], White, Rectangle[], Black, EdgeForm[], If[OddQ[n], Disk[{0.5, 0.5}, r]], If[MemberQ[{2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{p, p}, r]], If[MemberQ[{2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{Plus[1, Times[-1, p]], Plus[1, Times[-1, p]]}, r]], If[MemberQ[{4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{p, Plus[1, Times[-1, p]]}, r]], If[MemberQ[{4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{Plus[1, Times[-1, p]], p}, r]], If[n === 6, {Disk[{p, 0.5}, r], Disk[{Plus[1, Times[-1, p]], 0.5}, r]}]}, ImageSize -> Tiny]]
 .
 . Format[Dice[n_Integer ? (1 <= #1 <= 6&)], OutputForm] = Block[{p = 0.2, r = 0.05}, Graphics[{EdgeForm[Black], White, Rectangle[], Black, EdgeForm[], If[OddQ[n], Disk[{0.5, 0.5}, r]], If[MemberQ[{2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{p, p}, r]], If[MemberQ[{2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{Plus[1, Times[-1, p]], Plus[1, Times[-1, p]]}, r]], If[MemberQ[{4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{p, Plus[1, Times[-1, p]]}, r]], If[MemberQ[{4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{Plus[1, Times[-1, p]], p}, r]], If[n === 6, {Disk[{p, 0.5}, r], Disk[{Plus[1, Times[-1, p]], 0.5}, r]}]}, ImageSize -> Tiny]]
 .
 . Format[Dice[n_Integer ? (1 <= #1 <= 6&)], StandardForm] = Block[{p = 0.2, r = 0.05}, Graphics[{EdgeForm[Black], White, Rectangle[], Black, EdgeForm[], If[OddQ[n], Disk[{0.5, 0.5}, r]], If[MemberQ[{2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{p, p}, r]], If[MemberQ[{2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{Plus[1, Times[-1, p]], Plus[1, Times[-1, p]]}, r]], If[MemberQ[{4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{p, Plus[1, Times[-1, p]]}, r]], If[MemberQ[{4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{Plus[1, Times[-1, p]], p}, r]], If[n === 6, {Disk[{p, 0.5}, r], Disk[{Plus[1, Times[-1, p]], 0.5}, r]}]}, ImageSize -> Tiny]]
 .
 . Format[Dice[n_Integer ? (1 <= #1 <= 6&)], TeXForm] = Block[{p = 0.2, r = 0.05}, Graphics[{EdgeForm[Black], White, Rectangle[], Black, EdgeForm[], If[OddQ[n], Disk[{0.5, 0.5}, r]], If[MemberQ[{2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{p, p}, r]], If[MemberQ[{2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{Plus[1, Times[-1, p]], Plus[1, Times[-1, p]]}, r]], If[MemberQ[{4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{p, Plus[1, Times[-1, p]]}, r]], If[MemberQ[{4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{Plus[1, Times[-1, p]], p}, r]], If[n === 6, {Disk[{p, 0.5}, r], Disk[{Plus[1, Times[-1, p]], 0.5}, r]}]}, ImageSize -> Tiny]]
 .
 . Format[Dice[n_Integer ? (1 <= #1 <= 6&)], TraditionalForm] = Block[{p = 0.2, r = 0.05}, Graphics[{EdgeForm[Black], White, Rectangle[], Black, EdgeForm[], If[OddQ[n], Disk[{0.5, 0.5}, r]], If[MemberQ[{2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{p, p}, r]], If[MemberQ[{2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{Plus[1, Times[-1, p]], Plus[1, Times[-1, p]]}, r]], If[MemberQ[{4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{p, Plus[1, Times[-1, p]]}, r]], If[MemberQ[{4, 5, 6}, n], Disk[{Plus[1, Times[-1, p]], p}, r]], If[n === 6, {Disk[{p, 0.5}, r], Disk[{Plus[1, Times[-1, p]], 0.5}, r]}]}, ImageSize -> Tiny]]

The empty series of dice shall be displayed as an empty dice:
>> Format[Dice[]] := Graphics[{EdgeForm[Black], White, Rectangle[]}, ImageSize -> Tiny]
>> Dice[]
 = -Graphics-
Any non-empty series of dice shall be displayed as a row of individual dice:
>> Format[Dice[d___Integer?(1 <= # <= 6 &)]] := Row[Dice /@ {d}]
>> Dice[1, 6, 4, 4]
 = -Graphics--Graphics--Graphics--Graphics-
Note that \Mathics will automatically sort the given format rules according to their "generality", so the rule for the empty dice does not get overridden by the rule for a series of dice.
We can still see the original form by using 'InputForm':
>> Dice[1, 6, 4, 4] // InputForm
 = Dice[1, 4, 4, 6]
We want to combine 'Dice' objects using the '+' operator:
>> Dice[a___] + Dice[b___] ^:= Dice[Sequence @@ {a, b}]
The '^:=' ('UpSetDelayed') tells \Mathics to associate this rule with 'Dice' instead of 'Plus', which is protected---we would have to unprotect it first:
>> Dice[a___] + Dice[b___] := Dice[Sequence @@ {a, b}]
 : Tag Plus in Dice[a___] + Dice[b___] is Protected.
 = $Failed
We can now combine dice:
>> Dice[1, 5] + Dice[3, 2] + Dice[4]
 = -Graphics--Graphics--Graphics--Graphics--Graphics-
#> Dice[1, 5] + Dice[3, 2] + Dice[4] // InputForm
 = Dice[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
Let\'s write a function that returns the sum of the rolled dice:
>> DiceSum[Dice[d___]] := Plus @@ {d}
>> DiceSum @ Dice[1, 2, 5]
 = 8
And now let\'s put some dice into a table:
>> Table[{Dice[Sequence @@ d], DiceSum @ Dice[Sequence @@ d]}, {d, {{1, 2}, {2, 2}, {2, 6}}}] // TableForm
 = -Graphics--Graphics-   3
 .
 . -Graphics--Graphics-   4
 .
 . -Graphics--Graphics-   8
It is not very sophisticated from a mathematical point of view, but it\'s beautiful.
</section>

</chapter>



<chapter title="Django-based Web Interface">

In the future we plan on providing an interface to Jupyter as a separate package. However currently as part \Mathics, we distribute a browser-based interface using Django 3.1. Since a Jupyter-based interface seems preferable to the home-grown interface described here, it is doubtful whether there will be future improvements to the this interface.

When you enter Mathics in the top after the Mathics logo and the word "Mathics" you'll see a <i>menubar</i>.

It looks like this:

<imgpng src="menubar.png" title="Mathic Menu Bar" label="menubar">


<section title="Saving and Loading Worksheets">

<subsection title="Saving Worksheets">

Worksheets exist in the browser window only and are not stored on the server, by default. To save all your queries and results, use the <em>Save</em> button which is the middle graphic of the menu bar. It looks like this:

<imgpng src="save-button.png" title="Mathic Save Button" label="save-button">

Depending on browser, desktop, and OS-settings, the "Ctrl+S" key combination may do the same thing.

<subsection title="Loading Worksheets">

Saved worksheets can be loaded again using the <em>File Open</em> button which is the left-most button in the menu bar. It looks like this:

<imgpng src="file-open-button.png" title="Mathic File Open Button" label="file-open-button">

Depending on browser, desktop, and OS-settings, the "Ctrl+O" key combination may do the same thing.

</section>

<section title="Persistence of Mathics Definitions in a Session">

When you use the Django-based Web interface of \Mathics, a browser session is created. Cookies have to be enabled to allow this. Your session holds a key which is used to access your definitions that are stored in a database on the server. As long as you don\'t clear the cookies in your browser, your definitions will remain even when you close and re-open the browser.

This implies that you should not store sensitive, private information in \Mathics variables when using the online Web interface. In addition to their values being stored in a database on the server, your queries might be saved for debugging purposes. However, the fact that they are transmitted over plain HTTP should make you aware that you should not transmit any sensitive information. When you want to do calculations with that kind of stuff, simply install \Mathics locally!

If you are using a public terminal, to erase all your definitions and close the browser window. When you use \Mathics in a browser, use the command <con>Quit[]</con> or its alias, <con>Exit[]</con>.

Normally, when you reload the current page in a browser using the default url, e.g <con>http:localhost:8000</con>, all of the previous input and output disappears, even though definitions as described above do not, unless <con>Quit[]</con> or <con>Exit[]</con> is entered as described above.

However if you want a URL that will that records the input entered the <em>Generate Input Hash</em> button does this. The button looks like this:

<imgpng src="generate-hash-button.png" title="Mathic Generate Input Hash Button" label="generate-input-hash-button">

For example, assuming you have a \Mathics server running at port 8000 on <con>localhost</con>, and you enter the url <con>http://localhost:8000/#cXVlcmllcz14</con>, you should see a single line of input containing <con>x</con> entered.

Of course, what the value of this is when evaluated depends on whether <con>x</con> has been previously defined.

</section>

<section title="Keyboard Commands">

There are some keyboard commands you can use in the Django-based Web interface of \Mathics.

<dl>
<dt>'Shift+Return'</dt>
	<dd>This evaluates the current cell (the most important one, for sure). On the right-hand side you may also see an "=" button which can be clicked to do the same thing.</dd>
<dt>'Ctrl+D'</dt>
	<dd>This moves the cursor over to the documentation pane on the right-hand side. From here you can preform a search for a pre-defined \Mathics function, or symbol. Clicking on the "?" symbol on the right-hand side does the same thing.</dd>
<dt>'Ctrl+C'</dt>
	<dd>This moves the cursor back to document code pane area where you type \Mathics expressions</dd>
<dt>'Ctrl+S'</dt>
	<dd>Save worksheet</dd>
<dt>'Ctrl+O'</dt>
	<dd>Open worksheet</dd>
</dl>

Keyboard commands behavior depends the browser used, the operating system, desktop settings, and customization. We hook into the desktop "Open the current document" and "Save the current document" functions that many desktops provide. For example see: <url>https://help.ubuntu.com/community/KeyboardShortcuts#Finding_keyboard_shortcuts</url>

Often, these shortcut keyboard command are only recognized when a textfield has focus; otherwise,the browser might do some browser-specific actions, like setting a bookmark etc.

</section>

</chapter>
